Beef Cow Does Not Have Milk

Cattle bred to produce milk

"Dairy cow" redirects here. For the species of woodlouse, see Porcellio laevis.

A Holstein cow with prominent udder and less muscle than is typical of beefiness breeds

Dairy cattle (also called dairy cows) are cattle bred for the ability to produce big quantities of milk, from which dairy products are made. Dairy cattle by and large are of the species Bos taurus.^[1]

Historically, at that place was piddling distinction between dairy cattle and beefiness cattle, with the same stock often being used for both meat and milk product. Today, the bovine industry is more than specialized and near dairy cattle have been bred to produce large volumes of milk.

Management [edit]

Cows on a dairy farm in Maryland, U.Due south.

Dairy cows may be found either in herds or dairy farms where dairy farmers ain, manage, care for, and collect milk from them, or on commercial farms. Herd sizes vary around the earth depending on landholding culture and social construction. The United States has an estimated 9 1000000 cows in around 75,000 dairy herds, with an boilerplate herd size of 120 cows. The number of modest herds is falling rapidly with the 3,100 herds with over 500 cows producing 51% of U.Due south. milk in 2007.^[two] The Britain dairy herd overall has near 1.5 million cows, with almost 100 head reported on an average farm.^[three] In New Zealand, the average herd has more than than 375 cows, while in Australia, there are approximately 220 cows in the boilerplate herd.^{[4] [five]}

The United States dairy herd produced 84.ii billion kilograms (185.7 billion pounds) of milk in 2007,^{[half dozen]} up from 52.nine billion kilograms (116.half dozen billion pounds) in 1950,^[7] yet there were but virtually 9 one thousand thousand cows on U.S. dairy farms—about thirteen million fewer than there were in 1950.^[seven] The tiptop breed of dairy cow within Canada'south national herd category is Holstein, taking up 93% of the dairy cow population, take an annual production charge per unit of 10,257 kilograms (22,613 pounds) of milk per cow that contains three.9% butter fat and 3.2% poly peptide.^[8]

Dairy farming, like many other livestock rearing, can exist split into intensive and extensive management systems.^[ix]

Intensive systems focus towards maximum production per cow in the herd. This involves formulating their diet to provide platonic diet and housing the cows in a confinement arrangement such as free stall or tie stall. These cows are housed indoors throughout their lactation and may be put to pasture during their 60-solar day dry period before ideally calving again. Costless stall style barns involve cattle loosely housed where they can accept free admission to feed, water, and stalls just are moved to another part of the barn to be milked multiple times a day. In a tie stall system, the milking units are brought to the cows during each milking. These cattle are tethered within their stalls with gratis access to water and feed are provided. In extensive systems, cattle are mainly outside on pasture for almost of their lives. These cattle are by and large lower in milk product and are herded multiple times daily to be milked. The systems used greatly depends on the climate and available state of the region in which the farm is situated.^[ix]

A cow caring for her newborn calf

To maintain lactation, a dairy moo-cow must be bred and produce calves.^[10] Depending on market atmospheric condition, the moo-cow may exist bred with a "dairy balderdash" or a "beefiness bull." Female person calves (heifers) with dairy breeding may exist kept as replacement cows for the dairy herd. If a replacement cow turns out to be a substandard producer of milk, she and so goes to market and tin can be slaughtered for beefiness. Male calves can either exist used later on equally a convenance bull or sold and used for veal or beefiness. Dairy farmers usually begin breeding or artificially inseminating heifers effectually thirteen months of age.^[eleven] A cow'south gestation menstruum is approximately nine months.^[12] Newborn calves are separated from their mothers apace, unremarkably within 3 days, every bit the female parent/dogie bond intensifies over fourth dimension and delayed separation tin can cause extreme stress on both moo-cow and calf.^[13]

Domestic cows can live to 13 years; however, those raised for dairy rarely live that long, as the average cow is removed from the dairy herd around historic period six and marketed for beef.^{[12] [14]} In 2014, approximately 9.5% of the cattle slaughtered in the U.S. were culled dairy cows: cows that tin no longer exist seen every bit an economic asset to the dairy farm.^[15] These animals may exist sold due to reproductive bug or common diseases of milk cows such as mastitis and lameness.^[14]

Calf [edit]

Most heifers (female calves) are kept on farm to be raised as a replacement heifer, a female that is bred and enters the production bicycle. Market calves are generally sold at two weeks of age and balderdash calves may fetch a premium over heifers due to their size, either current or potential. Calves may be sold for veal, or for one of several types of beef production, depending on bachelor local crops and markets. Such balderdash calves may be castrated if turnout onto pastures is envisaged, to make them less ambitious. Purebred bulls from aristocracy cows may be put into progeny testing schemes to find out whether they might become superior sires for breeding. Such animals can become extremely valuable.

Most dairy farms separate calves from their mothers within a mean solar day of birth to reduce transmission of disease and simplify direction of milking cows. Studies have been done allowing calves to remain with their mothers for 1, iv, 7 or 14 days after birth. Cows whose calves were removed longer than one 24-hour interval later on nascency showed increased searching, sniffing and vocalizations. However, calves allowed to remain with their mothers for longer periods showed weight gains at three times the rate of early removals too as more than searching behavior and amend social relationships with other calves.^{[16] [17]}

Later separation, some immature dairy calves subsist on commercial milk replacer, a feed based on dried milk pulverization. Milk replacer is an economical alternative to feeding whole milk considering it is cheaper, tin can exist bought at varying fatty and protein percentages, and is typically less contaminated than whole milk when handled properly. Some farms pasteurize and feed calves milk from the cows in the herd instead of using replacer. A day-erstwhile calf consumes around 5 liters of milk per day.^{[eighteen] [ commendation needed ]}

Cattle are social animals; their ancestors tended to live in matriarchal groups of mothers and offspring. The formation of "friendships" between two cows is common and long lasting. Traditionally private housing systems were used in calf rearing, to reduce the hazard of affliction spread and provide specific care. Notwithstanding, due to their social behaviour the grouping of offspring may exist improve for the calves' overall welfare. Social interaction betwixt the calves tin have a positive consequence on their growth. It has been seen that calves housed in grouped penning were found to swallow more than feed than those in single pens,^[19] suggesting social facilitation of feeding behaviour in the calves. Play behaviour in pre-weaned dairy calves has also been suggested to help build social skills for later in life. It has been seen that those reared in grouped housing are more likely to become the dominant cattle in a new combination of animals.^[20] These ascendant animals accept a priority choice of feed or lying areas and are by and large stronger animals. For these reasons, it has become common practice to grouping or pair calves in their housing. It has become common in Canada to see paired or grouped housing in outdoor hutches or in an indoor pack penning.^{[21] [ commendation needed ]}

Bull [edit]

A bull dogie with high genetic potential may be reared for breeding purposes. Information technology may be kept by a dairy farm as a herd bull, to provide natural breeding for the herd of cows. A bull may service up to 50 or 60 cows during a breeding flavor. Whatsoever more and the sperm count declines, leading to cows "returning to service" (needing to be bred once again). A herd bull may only stay for 1 season, as when most bulls reach over two years old their temperament becomes too unpredictable.

Bull calves intended for convenance are commonly bred on specialized dairy breeding farms, non production farms. These farms are the major source of stocks for artificial insemination.

Milk product levels [edit]

Dairy cattle in Mangskog, Sweden, 1911.

Dairy Cows, Collins Center, New York, Us, 1999

The dairy moo-cow produces large amounts of milk in its lifetime. Production levels acme at around 40 to 60 days later calving. Production declines steadily later on until milking is stopped at about 10 months. The cow is "dried off" for about sixty days before calving again. Within a 12 to xiv-calendar month inter-calving cycle, the milking menstruum is about 305 days or 10 months long.^{[22] [23] [24]} Amongst many variables, certain breeds produce more milk than others within a range of around 6,800 to 17,000 kg (15,000 to 37,500 lb) of milk per year.^{[25] [ citation needed ]}

The Holstein Friesian is the main brood of dairy cattle in Australia, and said to accept the "world's highest" productivity, at ten,000 litres (two,200 imp gal; 2,600 US gal) of milk per year.^[26] The average for a unmarried dairy cow in the Us in 2007 was nine,164 kg (twenty,204 lb) per year, excluding milk consumed past her calves,^[6] whereas the same average value for a single moo-cow in Israel was reported in the Philippine press to be 12,240 kg (26,980 lb) in 2009.^[27] Loftier production cows are more than difficult to brood at a two-year interval. Many farms accept the view that 24 or even 36 calendar month cycles are more appropriate for this type of cow.^{[28] [29]}

Dairy cows may continue to be economically productive for many lactation cycles. In theory a longevity of 10 lactations is possible. The chances of bug arising which may pb to a cow existence culled are high, even so; the average herd life of US Holstein is today fewer than 3 lactations. This requires more herd replacements to be reared or purchased. Over xc% of all cows are slaughtered for 4 main reasons:

• Infertility – failure to conceive and reduced milk production.

Cows are at their most fertile betwixt 60 and 80 days after calving. Cows remaining "open" (not with calf) afterwards this period get increasingly difficult to brood, which may exist due to poor health. Failure to miscarry the afterbirth from a previous pregnancy, luteal cysts, or metritis, an infection of the uterus, are common causes of infertility.

• Mastitis – a persistent and potentially fatal mammary gland infection, leading to high somatic prison cell counts and loss of production.

Mastitis is recognized by a reddening and swelling of the infected quarter of the udder and the presence of whitish clots or pus in the milk. Treatment is possible with long-interim antibiotics but milk from such cows is not marketable until drug residues take left the moo-cow's system, also chosen withdrawal period.

• Lameness – persistent foot infection or leg bug causing infertility and loss of production.

High feed levels of highly digestible saccharide crusade acidic conditions in the cow's rumen. This leads to laminitis and subsequent lameness, leaving the moo-cow vulnerable to other foot infections and problems which may be exacerbated by standing in faeces or h2o soaked areas.

• Production – some animals neglect to produce economic levels of milk to justify their feed costs.

Production beneath 12 to xv L (2.6 to 3.three imp gal; 3.2 to iv.0 The states gal) of milk per day is not economically viable.^{[30] [ failed verification ] [ citation needed ]}

Cow longevity is strongly correlated with production levels.^[31] Lower product cows live longer than high product cows, simply may be less profitable. Cows no longer wanted for milk production are sent to slaughter. Their meat is of relatively low value and is generally used for processed meat. Another gene affecting milk product is the stress the moo-cow is faced with. Psychologists at the University of Leicester, UK, analyzed the musical preference of milk cows and found out that music actually influences the dairy moo-cow's lactation. Calming music tin can meliorate milk yield, probably because it reduces stress and relaxes the cows in much the same way every bit information technology relaxes humans.

Moo-cow comfort and its effects on milk production [edit]

Sure behaviors such equally eating, ruminating, and lying downwardly can exist related to the wellness of the moo-cow and moo-cow comfort. These behaviors can also be related to the productivity of the cows. Likewise, stress, disease, and discomfort negatively touch on milk productivity. Therefore, it can be said that it is in the best interest of the farmer to increase eating, rumination, and lying down and decrease stress, disease, and discomfort to achieve the maximum productivity possible.^[32] Also, estrous behaviors such as mounting tin can be a sign of cow comfort, since if a cow is lame, nutritionally deficient, or housed in an over crowded barn, its estrous behaviors is contradistinct.^[33]

Feeding behaviors are important for the dairy cow, as feeding is how the moo-cow ingests dry matter. Yet, the cow must ruminate to fully digest the feed and apply the nutrients in the feed.^[34] Dairy cows with adept rumen health are likely to be more profitable than cows with poor rumen health—as a healthy rumen aids in digestion of nutrients. An increase in the time a cow spends ruminating is associated with the increase in health and an increase in milk production.^[32] The productivity of dairy cattle is nearly efficient when the cattle have a full rumen.^[35] Also, the standing action while feeding after milking has been suggested to enhance udder wellness. The commitment of fresh feed while the cattle are away for milking stimulates the cattle to feed upon return, potentially reducing the prevalence of mastitis every bit the sphincters accept fourth dimension to close while continuing.^[36] This makes the blueprint of feeding directly after being milked an ideal method of increasing the efficiency of the herd.

Cows have a loftier motivation to prevarication down.^[34] They should lie down for at least v to six hours after every meal to ruminate well.^[37] When the lactating dairy moo-cow lies down, claret catamenia is increased to the mammary gland which in return results in a college milk yield.^[38] When they stand too long, cows become stressed, lose weight, become sore feet, and produce less milk.^[37]

To ensure that the dairy cows lie down as much as needed, the stalls must be comfy.^[37] A stall should have a condom mat and bedding, and be large plenty for the cow to prevarication downward and get up comfortably. Signs that the stalls may not be comfortable plenty for the cows are the cows are standing, either ruminating or non, instead of lying downward, or perching, which is when the cow has its forepart in the stall and their back end out of the stall.^[39] Dried manure, almond shells, harbinger, sand, or waterbeds are used for cow bedding.^[37]

In that location are two types of housing systems in dairy production, costless fashion housing and tie stall. Gratis manner housing is where the cow is free to walk around and interact with its surround and other members of the herd. Tie stall housing is when the cow is chained to a stantion stall with the milking units and feed coming to them.^[40]

By-products and processing [edit]

Pasteurization is the process of heating milk to a loftier enough temperature for a short period of time to kill the microbes in the milk and increment keep time and subtract spoilage fourth dimension. By killing the microbes, decreasing the transmission of infection, and emptying of enzymes the quality of the milk and the shelf life increases. Pasteurization is either completed at 63 °C (145 °F) for thirty minutes or a flash pasteurization is completed for 15 seconds at 72 °C (162 °F).^[41] By-products of milk include butterfat, foam, curds, and whey. Butterfat is the primary lipid in milk. The cream contains 18–40% butterfat. The manufacture can be divided into 2 market territories; fluid milk and industrialized milk such as yogurt, cheeses, and ice cream.^[42]

Whey protein makes upwardly well-nigh xx% of milk's poly peptide composition and is separated from the casein (80% of milk's protein make up) during the procedure of curdling cheese. This protein is commonly used in protein bars, beverages and concentrated powder, due to its loftier quality amino acid contour. It contains levels of both essential amino acids as well as branched that are higher up those of soy, meat, and wheat.^[43] "Diafiltered" milk is a process of ultrafiltration of the fluid milk to split lactose and h2o from the casein and whey proteins. This process allows for more than efficiency in cheese making and gives the potential to produce low-carb dairy products.^[44]

Reproduction [edit]

Since the 1950s, artificial insemination (AI) is used at nearly dairy farms; these farms may go along no balderdash. Artificial insemination uses heat synchronization to indicate when the moo-cow is going through ovulation and is susceptible to fertilization. Advantages of using AI include its low toll and ease compared to maintaining a bull, power to select from a big number of bulls, emptying of diseases in the dairy manufacture, improved genetics and improved animate being welfare.^{[45] [ citation needed ]} Rather than a large bull jumping on a smaller heifer or weaker cow, AI allows the farmer to consummate the breeding procedure within 5 minutes with minimum stress placed on the individual female's body.^{[46] [ citation needed ]}

Dairy cattle are polyestrous, pregnant they bicycle continuously throughout the yr. They tend to exist on a 21 day estrus wheel. However for management purposes, some operations use synthetic hormones to synchronize their cows or heifers to have them breed and calve at the ideal times. These hormones are brusque term and merely used when necessary. For instance, one common protocol for synchronization involves an injection of GnRH (gonadotrophin releasing hormone). which increases the levels of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in the torso. Then, seven days later prostaglandin F2-blastoff is injected, followed past another GnRH injection 48 hours later on. This protocol causes the beast to ovulate 24 hours afterwards.^[47]

Estrus is often called standing estrus in cattle and refers to the time in their bicycle where the female is receptive towards the male person. Estrus behaviour can exist detected by an experienced stockman. These behaviours tin can include standing to exist mounted, mounting other cows, restlessness, decreased milk production, and decreased feed intake.^[48]

More than recently, embryo transfer has been used to enable the multiplication of progeny from elite cows. Such cows are given hormone treatments to produce multiple embryos. These are so 'flushed' from the cow'southward uterus. 7–12 embryos are consequently removed from these donor cows and transferred into other cows who serve every bit surrogate mothers. This results in between three and 6 calves instead of the normal single or (rarely) twins.

Hormone use [edit]

Farmers in some countries sometimes administer hormone treatments to dairy cows to increase milk product and reproduction.

About 17% of dairy cows in the United States are injected with Bovine somatotropin, also chosen recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST), recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), or artificial growth hormone.^[49] The use of this hormone increases milk production by 11%–25%.^{[ citation needed ]} The U.S. Nutrient and Drug Administration (FDA) has ruled that rBST is harmless to people.^{[ citation needed ]} The use of rBST is banned in Canada, parts of the European Union, equally well as Commonwealth of australia and New Zealand.^{[ citation needed ]}

In the U.s.a. the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance requires a milk sample is taken from every subcontract and from every load of milk delivered to a processing found.^[50] These samples are then tested for antibiotic and any milk testing positive is discarded and farm identified. Traceback to the dairy is undertaken by the FDA with further consequences including the possibility revocation of ability to sell milk.^[51]

Nutrition [edit]

Dairy cattle at feeding time

Diet plays an important role in keeping cattle good for you and strong. Implementing an adequate nutrition programme tin can also improve milk production and reproductive performance. Nutrient requirements may not be the aforementioned depending on the beast'due south age and stage of production. Diets are formulated to meet the dairy cow's energy and amino acid requirements for lactation, growth, and/or reproduction.^[52]

Forages, which refer especially to annihilation grown in the field such equally hay, straw, corn silage, or grass silage, are the almost common type of feed used. The base of well-nigh lactating dairy cattle diets is high quality forage. Cereal grains, as the principal contributors of starch to diets, are important in helping to meet the energy needs of dairy cattle. Barley is an excellent source of counterbalanced amounts of protein, energy, and fiber.^[53]

Ensuring adequate trunk fat reserves is essential for cattle to produce milk and also to keep reproductive efficiency. Withal, if cattle get excessively fat or too thin, they run the risk of developing metabolic problems and may have issues with calving.^[54] Scientists accept constitute that a diverseness of fat supplements can do good conception rates of lactating dairy cows. Some of these different fats include oleic acids, found in canola oil, beast tallow, and yellow grease; palmitic acid plant in granular fats and dry fats; and linolenic acids which are found in cottonseed, safflower, sunflower, and soybean.^[55]

Using by-products is one way of reducing the commonly high feed costs. Still, lack of knowledge of their nutritional and economic value limits their use. Although the reduction of costs may be significant, they have to be used carefully because animate being may have negative reactions to radical changes in feeds, (e.g. fog fever). Such a alter must so exist fabricated slowly and with the proper follow up.^[56]

Breeds [edit]

According to the Purebred Dairy Cattle Clan, PDCA, there are 7 major dairy breeds in the United States. These are: Holstein, Chocolate-brown Swiss, Guernsey, Ayrshire, Jersey, Red and White, and Milking Shorthorn.^[57]

Holstein cows originate from the Netherlands and take distinct blackness and white or more rarely red and white markings. Holstein cows are the biggest of all dairy breeds. A full mature Holstein cow usually weighs around 700 kilograms (1,500 lb) and is 147 centimetres (58 in) tall at the shoulder. They are known for their outstanding milk product amongst the principal breeds of dairy cattle. An average Holstein cow produces around 10,000 kilograms (23,000 lb) of milk each lactation. Of the 9 1000000 dairy cows in the U.S., approximately 90% of them are of the Holstein descent.^[58] The tiptop breed of dairy cow inside Canada'southward national herd category is Holstein, taking upward 93% of the dairy moo-cow population, have a product charge per unit of 10,257 kilograms (22,613 lb) of milk per cow that contains iii.9% butter fat and 3.two% protein^[8]

Dark-brown Swiss cows are widely accepted as the oldest dairy cattle brood, originally coming from a office of northeastern Switzerland. Some experts think that the modern Brown Swiss skeleton is like to one found that looks to be from around the year 4000 BC As well, in that location is evidence that monks started breeding these cows about 1000 years agone.^[59]

The Ayrshire brood first originated in the County of Ayr in Scotland. It became regarded equally a well established breed in 1812. The unlike breeds that were crossed to form the Ayrshire are not exactly known. Withal, there is bear witness that several breeds were crossed with the native cattle to create the breed.^[60]

Guernsey cows originated but off the coast of France on the small Isle of Guernsey. The breed was starting time known as a separate brood around 1700. Guernseys are known for their ability to produce very high quality milk from grass. Also, the term "Gilt Guernsey" is very common as Guernsey cattle produce rich, xanthous milk rather than the standard white milk other cow breeds produce.^[61]

The Jersey brood of dairy moo-cow originated on a small island located off the declension of France chosen Jersey.^[62] Despite being one of the oldest breeds of dairy cattle they now just occupy 4% of the Canadian National Herd.^[63] Purebred Bailiwick of jersey cows, according to available data, have been in the U.k. surface area since about the twelvemonth 1741. When they were commencement bred in this area, they were non known equally Jerseys, simply rather every bit the related Alderneys. The catamenia betwixt 1860 and around 1914 was a popular fourth dimension for Jerseys. In this fourth dimension span, many countries other than the United States started importing this breed, including Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand, amid others.^[64]

Amid the smallest of the dairy breeds, the boilerplate Jersey cow matures at approximately 410 kilograms (900 lb), with a typical weight range betwixt 360 and 540 kilograms (800–1,200 lb). Co-ordinate to North Dakota State University, the fat content of the Jersey cow'due south milk is four.9 percent. Information technology is also the highest in protein, at 3.eight percent.^[65] This high fat content means the milk is oft used for making ice foam and cheeses. According to the American Jersey Cattle Association, Jerseys are found on 20 percent of all Usa dairy farms and are the primary breed in about four percent of dairies.^{[66] [ commendation needed ]}

Amongst the Bos indicus, the most popular dairy breed in the world is Sahiwal of the Indian subcontinent. It does not give as much milk as the Taurine breeds, only it is by far the nigh suitable breed for warmer climates. Australian Friesian Sahiwal and Australian Milking Zebu have been developed in Commonwealth of australia using Sahiwal genetics. Gir, another of the Bos indicus breeds, has been improved in Brazil for its milk production and is widely used there for dairy.

Animal welfare [edit]

Animal welfare refers to both the concrete and mental country of an animal, and how it is coping with its situation. An animal is considered in a good state of welfare if it is able to express its innate behaviour, comfortable, healthy, safe, well nourished, and is not suffering from harmful states such as distress, fear and pain. Good beast welfare requires illness prevention and veterinary treatment, advisable shelter, management, nutrition, and humane handling. If the animate being is slaughtered then it is no longer "good animal welfare".^[67] Information technology is the man responsibility of the animals' wellbeing in all husbandry and management practices including humane euthanasia.

Proper animal handling, or stockmanship, is crucial to dairy animals' welfare also equally the prophylactic of their handlers. Improper handling techniques can stress cattle leading to impaired production and wellness, such as increased slipping injuries. Additionally, the majority of nonfatal worker injuries on a dairy farm are from interactions with cattle. Dairy animals are handled on a daily ground for a wide variety of purposes including health-related management practices and movement from freestalls to the milking parlor. Due to the prevalence of human-animal interactions on dairy farms, researchers, veterinarians, and farmers alike have focused on furthering our understanding of stockmanship and educating agriculture workers. Stockmanship is a complex concept that involves the timing, positioning, speed, direction of motion, and sounds and touch of the handler.^{[68] [ commendation needed ]}

A contempo survey of Minnesota dairy farms revealed that 42.6% of workers learned stockmanship techniques from family members, and 29.ix% had participated in stockmanship training. However, equally the growing U.Due south. dairy industry increasingly relies on an immigrant workforce, stockmanship preparation and education resource go more pertinent. Clearly communicating and managing a large culturally diverse workforce brings new challenges such as language barriers and fourth dimension limitations.^[69] Organizations like the Upper Midwest Agriculture Safety and Wellness Center offering resource such every bit bilingual training videos, fact sheets, and informational posters for dairy worker training. Additionally the Beefiness Quality Assurance Programme offer seminars, live demonstrations, and online resource for stockmanship training.^{[70] [ citation needed ]}

For cows to attain high performance in milk yields and reproduction, they must exist in keen status and comfortable in the system. Once an individual'southward welfare is reduced, and so does her efficiency and production. This creates more cost and time on the operation, therefore most farmers strive to create a healthy, aseptic, atmosphere for their cattle. As well equally provide quality nutrition that keep the cows yield loftier.^[71]

The product of milk requires that the moo-cow be in lactation, which is a outcome of the cow having given nativity to a calf. The bicycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation is followed by a "dry" period of about 2 months before calving, which allows udder tissue to regenerate. A dry out period that falls outside this time frames can result in decreased milk production in subsequent lactation.^[72] Dairy operations therefore include both the production of milk and the product of calves. Bull calves are either castrated and raised as steers for beef production or used for veal.

The practice of dairy production has been criticized by animal rights proponents. Some of the ethical reasons regarding dairy production cited include how oft the dairy cattle are impregnated, the separation of calves from their mothers, the fact that dairy cows are considered "spent" and culled at a relatively immature historic period, too as ecology concerns regarding whatsoever cattle production.^[73]

See also [edit]

• List of Dairy cattle breeds
• Estrous synchronization
• Fog fever
• Dairy cattle showmanship
• Meat industry

References [edit]

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